19 June 2011 Last updated at 07:11 ET


Greece debt plan 'playing with fire' says eurozone head

Riot police and protesters in Athens, Greece (15 June 2011) Greece's austerity campaign has led to angry protests on the streets of Athens

Greece crisis

Merkel and Sarkozy urge aid
Profile: Unlikely finance minister
Hewitt: The reckoning
Markets cautious over debts

The Greek debt crisis is endangering the economies of at least five other EU countries, the head of the eurozone group of finance ministers has warned.

Luxembourg Prime Minister Jean-Claude Juncker said Germany was "playing with fire" with a plan to involve private creditors in resolving the crisis.

Eurozone finance ministers are set to release a 12bn-euro (£10bn) in loans later on Sunday.

PM George Papandreou has asked parliament to support the new cabinet.

Speaking on Sunday at the start of three days of debates, Mr Papandreou said Greece was given the impression it was divided over the financial reforms, which was not helping its economic situation.

The 12bn-euro loan is the latest tranche of an EU and IMF aid package, agreed in May last year, worth a total of 110bn euros.

Mr Papandreou said that Greece was in talks for a new bail-out "roughly equal" to the first package, and also called for a referendum in the autumn on "changes to the political system", including to the country's constitution.

MPs will vote on a confidence motion on Tuesday after Friday's cabinet reshuffle saw former Defence Minister Evangelos Venizelos replacing George Papaconstantinou in the finance ministry.

The move sparked a jump in Greek bank shares but failed to ease the anger on the streets.

Analysis

Greeks are fed up with austerity, recession and debt.

Many analysts are sceptical that Greece can dig its way out of this hole, even with substantial help from its partners.

The government still believes it can, but it needs to convince public opinion that it is worth the effort.

If it fails, a Greek default could send the rest of the eurozone, and the wider financial world, into dangerous territory.

Greece needs the 12bn-euro IMF and EU loan to avoid defaulting on its debts due for repayment over the next few months.

But the money is conditional on the government implementing a series of painful domestic reforms which have sparked nationwide strikes, rallies and violent riots on the streets of the capital.

German Chancellor Angela Merkel has said that private investors should be encouraged to share some of the burden of the Greek debt by allowing the country extra time to pay them off.

'Wrong signal'

Mrs Merkel and French President Nicolas Sarkozy have stressed such involvement should be voluntary, but that private creditors should "show solidarity".

But Mr Juncker told German paper the Suddeutsche Zeitung on Saturday that this proposal was "playing with fire" as it would send the wrong signal to ratings agencies who could then decide Greece had defaulted on its repayments.

If Greece were to default, the cost of borrowing would rise for other struggling eurozone countries, forcing them to default in turn.

Mr Juncker said that unless properly managed, the crisis "could prove contagious for Portugal and Ireland, and then also for Belgium and Italy because of their high debt burden, even before Spain".

Greek bail-out timeline

May 2010: EU and IMF agree bail-out package to prevent Greece defaulting on its debts; in return, Greece agrees to make 30bn euros of budget cuts over the next three years
February 2011: EU and IMF experts tell Greece it must make further cuts to keep recovery on track
April 2011: EU figures reveal Greek deficit revised up to 10.5%, worse than previously thought
May 2011: Greece begins privatisation programme but is warned the IMF may not release more funds as Athens cannot guarantee it will remain solvent for next 12 months
29 June 2011: Deadline for Greece to agree new austerity package

Q&A: Greek debt crisis
Viewpoint: Politics of Greek crisis

He said Mrs Merkel's proposal was based on "domestic political considerations in Germany".

Separately on Sunday, the president of the European Central Bank criticised eurozone policy makers for poor governance.

"Governance of the economic union is insufficient," Jean-Claude Trichet told an audience in the German city of Kiel.

Finance ministers from eurozone countries are due to meet in Luxembourg later on Sunday, where they will almost certainly release the next 12bn-euro loan which has already been promised to Greece as well as discussing a second bail-out package.

But the BBC Chris Morris in Athens says many people doubt whether that will be enough to save the country's economy.

Thousands of protesters marched on the Greek parliament on Saturday to show their continued anger at Prime Minister George Papandreou's austerity campaign which would see significant cuts to public services and sell off state enterprises.

"They, along with the creditors, have decided to skin the Greek people alive," said Aleka Papariga, head of the Greek Community party.

"The struggle will continue until the end."

The world has had enough of this stuff about Greek hairdressers retiring at 45 ....send them back to work with shovels in their hands ......only the Eurowanker likes this socialist rubbish

Thomas Straubhaar, a top economist from Germany, attacked U.S. credit agencies after they lowered Greece's credit rating to junk status, down there with the Pakistans of this world. In fact, in the spirit of Greek street protesters, Straubhaar called for the "violent overthrow" of the credit rating companies like Moody's or Standard & Poor's, arguing that these companies actually undermine stability in markets.

Come on, Thomas, don't shoot the messenger. The problem isn't the credit rating agencies -- although one does wonder if they don't have itchy trigger fingers after having been late with their warnings during the 2008-2009 phase of the current protracted economic crisis.

The problem isn't the Greek finance ministry. The problem isn't the Greek legislature. The problem isn't the Europeans who are being dragged kicking and screaming toward helping Greece. The problem isn't even Goldman Sachs and the other banks who lent Greece more money than they could afford and even helped them hide a bunch of the financings off the books.

Nope, the problem is Greek nuclear scientists and radical terror groups affiliated with the Greek intelligence services -- or rather, the lack thereof.

Because if Greece had nuclear weapons and crazed terrorists hiding in every luxury housing development, you can bet we wouldn't be going through this long drawn-out process of figuring out whether the country was going to default or not.

We know this because of Pakistan. Pakistan is an absolute financial basket case. It is in many respects in as bad a shape as Greece -- and in some it is even much worse off. But do you hear anyone talking about Pakistan's financial problems? Heck no.

Of course, talking about Pakistan's financial problems is like talking about whether Anthony Weiner's socks match. It's not exactly the first issue that comes to mind. Having said that, the reason we are not sweating the meltdown of Pakistan's financial markets is that there is no way the United States or the world would let it happen. Because a financial collapse could trigger the kind of unrest that would put Pakistani nukes at risk, and that's just not tolerable. So the United States pumps billions into Pakistan knowing full well that it is this aid that helps keep the ship of state afloat. (And, money being fungible, if it also pays for expanding Pakistan's nuclear arsenal … well, apparently we're willing to look the other way. Again.)

Once again, one of the main messages of modern international affairs comes through loud and clear: Nukes pay. From Pyongyang to Tehran, enterprising leaders know that the easiest way to boost your country's profile, gain political leverage, and win cash and prizes is to toss a little enriched uranium in the old Cuisinart, let the satellites take a few snaps, and start rattling your radioactive saber.

The problem with Greece is that if the economy collapsed, if the government collapsed, if the country descended into chaos, no one is worried that a nuclear catastrophe would follow. An ouzo-induced hangover maybe -- which can be a pretty horrific thing -- but it's the specter of a mushroom cloud that really is the attention grabber.

Admittedly, if Greece goes down and takes a few big French banks with it (as the ratings agencies warned this week) and markets get jittery and the firewall around Spain gives way and then a bunch more French and maybe German banks fail and a new global banking crisis and maybe a depression ensues -- well, that would be bad. And would produce instability in many corners of the world, including, possibly, in Pakistan. And if the downturn is bad enough it might force the U.S. and others to give less the next time Club Nuke comes to extort. So, well, yeah, that would be worse.

But, that's all speculation. What we know for sure is this: If there were a centrifuge or a hundred under the Parthenon, the Greek government would right now be sitting on piles of cash and not squirming, knowing that their fate depends on the famously warm hearts and generosity of the German people (among others).

As a good friend of mine told me upon his return from a trip to Greece some ten years ago. "Dude, you have no idea how happy I was to see the bag handlers at Kennedy Airport. And here I thought these guys at JFK Air were pretty bad, but after witnessing Greek bag handlers, our guys are Gold Plated material

Dollar will gain versus the EURO?


Will the EURO break up into two zones? With Germany and France leading a strong grouping and the Southern Piggies another slower moving bunch?


20 June 2011 Last updated at 07:06 ET


Greece: Eurozone ministers delay decision on vital loan


People outside the parliament building in Athens protest against any further budget cuts (19 June 2011) Many Greeks are opposed to further cuts, which the government says are absolutely crucial


Eurozone finance ministers have postponed their decision on a 12bn euro ($17bn; £10bn) loan to Greece until it introduces further austerity measures.

The ministers said they expected to pay the latest tranche of a 110bn euro EU and IMF aid package by mid-July.

But it will depend on the Greek parliament passing 28bn euros of new spending cuts and economic reforms.

The ministers also committed to put together a second bail-out package to keep the country afloat.

Stock markets and the euro fell, pressured by the lack of resolution to the Greek crisis.

Leading indexes in Frankfurt, Paris and London were all down around 1% and the euro lost 0.5% against the US dollar.

Kathleen Brooks, research director at Forex.com, said investors were unsettled: "The markets remain nervous and are keeping the pressure on stock and credit markets, along with the euro, while a long-term credible solution to the crisis remains elusive."
Second rescue

Jean-Claude Juncker, Luxembourg's prime minister who chairs the meetings of the 17 eurozone finance ministers, said that as long as the Greek parliament supported the new measures, he was certain Greece would get a second bail-out.

“Start Quote

Letting Greece default in a disorderly, uncontrolled way would probably be a good deal worse for the global economy than Lehman's collapse”



But the austerity conditions have provoked widespread protests, some of which have been violent.

The latest public opposition to the cutbacks, which include pay and pension cuts, involve Greek workers at the state-owned electricity company, who are on the first day of a 48-hour strike.

The Greek government expects a second rescue package to be similar in size to the first one.

Athens has said it needs the 12bn euros from the existing package by July to avoid defaulting on its debt.

Belgian Finance Minister Didier Reynders said the release of that would depend on the Greek Prime Minister, George Papandreou, surviving a confidence vote on Tuesday.

"To move to the payment of the next tranche, we need to be sure that the Greek parliament will approve the confidence vote and support the programme, so the decision will be taken at the start of the month of July," he said.
Appeal for unity

After a seven-hour meeting in Luxembourg that ended early on Monday, the finance ministers said they would not approve the disbursement to Greece of the 12bn euros (8.7bn euros from eurozone governments and 3.3bn euros from the IMF) until the country's parliament passed the fiscal strategy and privatisation laws.

Greek bail-out timeline

May 2010: EU and IMF agree bail-out package to prevent Greece defaulting on its debts; in return, Greece agrees to make 30bn euros of budget cuts over the next three years
February 2011: EU and IMF experts tell Greece it must make further cuts to keep recovery on track
April 2011: EU figures reveal Greek deficit revised up to 10.5% of GDP, worse than previously thought
May 2011: Greece begins privatisation programme but is warned the IMF may not release more funds as Athens cannot guarantee it will remain solvent for next 12 months

Q&A: Greek debt crisis
Viewpoint: Politics of Greek crisis

A statement issued by the ministers called on all political parties in Greece to: "support the programme's main objectives and key policy measures to ensure a rigorous and expeditious implementation".

"Given the length, magnitude and nature of required reforms in Greece, national unity is a prerequisite for success," it added.

The ministers also concluded that because Greece was unlikely to return to the commercial money markets by early 2012, a second bail-out would be needed.

The new aid package, to be outlined by early July, will include loans from other eurozone countries.
'Roll-overs'

It is also expected to feature a voluntary contribution from private investors, who will be invited to buy up new Greek bonds as old ones mature.

"Ministers agreed that the required additional funding will be financed through both official and private sources and welcome the pursuit of voluntary private sector involvement in the form of informal and voluntary roll-overs of existing Greek debt at maturity for a substantial reduction of the required year-by-year funding within the programme, while avoiding a selective default for Greece," the statement said.

Officials said the plan was expected to fund Greece into late 2014 and total about 120bn euros.

The agreement came after the eurozone ministers held a conference call with other members of the G7 group of rich industrialised nations.

The European Commission has also confirmed that inspectors from the European Union and International Monetary Fund will visit Athens on Tuesday.

"They will be here Tuesday and Wednesday at least," said Carlos Martin Ruiz de Gordejuela, press officer for the European Commission representation to Greece.

Mr Ruiz de Gordejuela said that it would be a "technical mission" adding that the composition of the mission had not been decided and he could not say what its objective would be.

Greece is suffering competition from Turkey for tourism.

It is also importing too much. a 'buy Greek' campaign is needed.

UK had numerous 'buy British' campaigns during economic problems, France 'buy French'.
Close supermarkets etc. selling imported goods.

http://buybritish.com/



More wine festivals? Stop importing Whiskey.

Dollar has gone from 1.0 to Euro to about 1.4 in 15 years. Euro is fundamenally str=ong.

S.

Talk about being ungrateful After WWII Germany, France, and the USA among others have provided Greeks with many hundreds of billions of Euros and dollars to advance into the modern world. Health and education have seen positive changes and many Greeks today have lifestyles unimaginable just a few generations ago. Yet, the self inflicted bad practices in governance, poor work habits, poor tax collection and tax avoidance, made-up employment jobs or what we call here in DR "Botellas" among many other poor practices have finally come back to disrobe the poor state of Greece with this Global Recession. Germany and France have provided a way out and have agreed to a 50% cut in Greece's debt, but demand that Greece put her house in order. So what does Greece do? Why put the whole operation into a nosedive with a popular Referendum!! on matters. As if people will vote for pension cuts, less spending, more sacrifice Incredible


2 November 2011 Last updated at 07:56 ET

Germany warns Greece over rescue

Photo taken on July 20, 2011 at the Chancellery in Berlin showing German Chancellor Angela Merkel and French President Nicolas Sarkozy The French and German leaders are holding emergency talks with Greece's PM


The eurozone plan to save Greece from bankruptcy is not up for renegotiation, Germany has warned, ahead of emergency talks with Greece and France.

"[What] we just agreed last week cannot be placed back on the table," Foreign Minister Guido Westerwelle said.

Greek PM George Papandreou is to meet France's Nicolas Sarkozy and Germany's Angela Merkel later on Thursday.

The meetings come a day after Mr Papandreou said Greece would hold a referendum on the eurozone rescue plan.

Overnight, Greece's cabinet gave unanimous backing to Mr Papandreou's controverisial plan for a public vote, which could take place in December.

He told an emergency cabinet meeting a referendum would offer "a clear mandate" for austerity measures demanded by eurozone partners.

Earlier, stock markets recorded big drops amid shocked reactions in eurozone capitals to the referendum announcement.
'Appalled by uncertainty'
Continue reading the main story
Analysis
image of Gavin Hewitt Gavin Hewitt BBC Europe editor

Many were cursing the Greek leader George Papandreou yesterday - certainly European officials and certainly the leaders of France and Germany.

They complained they had not been forewarned or consulted about his proposal to put the rescue deal to the people.

They believed, in a rash moment, the Greek prime minister had jeopardised the eurozone bailout plan so painfully constructed in Brussels last week.

As a result, another plan - like so many of its predecessors - was in doubt after just five days.

For whatever reasons, George Papandreou was standing up for democracy.

For two years, outsiders and international officials have dictated terms to Greece. They have insisted on the austerity packages that have changed so many Greek lives.

Now Greeks will be given a chance to vote on all this. It may well be that Mr Papandreou has chosen the referendum option to save his own skin.

Democracy versus the eurozone

BBC diplomatic correspondent James Robbins, in Cannes for the G20, says the summit of global leaders has been thrown into confusion before it even opens.

President Sarkozy had thought the priority would be presenting to the wider world a done deal for the Eurozone rescue and asking for active international support, particularly from China.

But instead, Mr Papandreou's move has left Mr Sarkozy, and German Chancellor Angela Merkel appalled by the uncertainty, and the damage already done, our correspondent says.

Mr Papandreou is expected to say that he had no choice: a referendum was vital to try to overcome resistance on the streets to deepening cuts - and a possible alternative of snap elections would risk Greece defaulting on its debt.

Furthermore, the Greek government faces a crucial confidence vote in parliament on Friday.

One MP from the governing Pasok party has resigned, cutting Mr Papandreou's parliamentary majority to two - and six other leading party members have called on him to resign.

The planned referendum threatens to unravel a deal reached at a EU summit last week aimed at resolving the euro debt crisis.

Leaders agreed on a 100bn-euro loan (£86bn; $140bn) to Athens and a 50% debt write-off.

But in return, Greece must make deep cuts in public spending, slashing pensions and wages and making thousands of civil servants redundant.

There have been widespread protests in Greece against the measures.
Three-way talks

On Tuesday, President Sarkozy said Mr Papandreou's decision "surprised all of Europe".

The French and German governments said they wanted "full implementation" of the agreement "in the quickest time-frame".
Continue reading the main story
Latest planned austerity measures

New pay and promotion system covering all 700,000 civil servants
Further cuts in public sector wages and many bonuses scrapped
Some 30,000 public sector workers suspended, wages cut to 60% and face lay off after a year
Wage bargaining suspended
Monthly pensions above 1,000 euros to be cut 20% above that threshold
Other cuts in pensions and lump-sum retirement pay
Tax-free threshold lowered to 5,000 euros a year from 8,000

Austerity plans in full
Democracy versus the eurozone
How to solve eurozone crisis
Profile: George Papandreou
Greece under pressure: Your views

In a joint statement, President Sarkozy and Chancellor Merkel said the decisions taken by last week's EU summit were "more necessary than ever".

"France and Germany are convinced that this agreement will allow Greece to return to sustainable growth," they said.

Last week's marathon EU summit was intended to rescue Greece and bring the 17-nation eurozone back from the brink of disaster.

The chairman of the group of eurozone countries, Jean-Claude Juncker, said if a referendum rejected the bailout, it could mean bankruptcy for Greece.

"It will depend on the manner in which the question will be exactly formulated and on what the Greeks exactly vote on," he said.

After Wednesday's meeting in Cannes, Mr Papandreou faces a difficult confidence vote on Friday with some of his own MPs openly calling for his resignation.

The BBC's Europe editor Gavin Hewitt says that if he loses, elections almost certainly would follow, ushering in a period of uncertainty and instability.

3 November 2011 Last updated at 08:21 ET


Greek crisis: Papandreou 'to offer to resign'

Greek Prime Minister George Papandreou (2 Nov 2011) Mr Papandreou's referendum plan has failed to win the support of many of his MPs


Greek Prime Minister George Papandreou is expected to offer his resignation within the next half-hour, sources in Athens have told the BBC.

Mr Papandreou will meet Greek President Karolos Papoulias immediately after an emergency cabinet meeting has finished.

He is expected to offer a coalition government, with former Greek central banker Lucas Papademos at the helm.

Mr Papandreou himself would stand down, the BBC understands.

The Greek government was on the verge of collapse after several ministers said they did not support Mr Papandreou's plan for a referendum on the EU bailout.

The bailout would give the heavily indebted Greek government 130bn euros (£111bn; $178bn) and a 50% write-off of its debts, in return for deeply unpopular austerity measures.

On Thursday, main opposition leader Antonis Samaras of the centre-right New Democracy party called for a caretaker government to safeguard the EU deal.
Shadow over G20

Mr Papandreou had called a vote of confidence for Friday. His Pasok party holds a slim majority, 152 out of 300 seats.

However, he was faced with a parliamentary revolt after several of his MPs withheld their backing. Some called for early elections or a government of national unity instead.

The row threatens to overshadow a meeting of the G20 in Cannes, where leading industrialised nations are to discuss the eurozone debt crisis.

Mr Papandreou told reporters in Cannes his referendum would in effect be a vote on whether Greece should remain in the euro.

But the European Commission said if Greece left the European single currency, it would have to leave the European Union as well.
Greek parliament graphic

"The treaty doesn't foresee an exit from the eurozone without exiting the EU," spokeswoman Karolina Kottova told a briefing in Brussels.

Earlier, the chairman of the group of eurozone countries, Jean-Claude Juncker of Luxembourg, said plans were in place for a Greek exit from the euro.

"We are absolutely prepared for the situation that I have described and do not want to see come about," Mr Juncker told German ZDF television.

Greek Finance Minister Evangelos Venizelos launched the parliamentary revolt in the early hours of Thursday with a statement saying Greece's membership of the euro could not be put in doubt.

"If we want to protect the country we must, under conditions of national unity and political seriousness and consensus, implement without any delay the decision of 26 October. Now, as soon as possible," Mr Venizelos said.

Mr Venizelos is a former challenger for the Pasok leadership. In 2004, he was defeated by Mr Papandreou by 56% to 38% in a party vote.

Greece was due to receive the next tranche of funds from its first bailout later this month. However, the EU has said it will not transfer the 8bn euros until after the referendum.

[B]Anyone interested in why Greece is in such a mess need only read these two brief reviews. The main problems reside within Greece herself: bad governance, lots of corruption and tax evasion. [/B]


Trikoupis and the Modernization of Greece

The Greek Railways in the 19th Century

Apr 22, 2009
Lito Apostolakou

Charilaos Trikoupis, 19thC. Greek Prime Minister - Photographic Archive of ELIA
Charilaos Trikoupis, 19thC. Greek Prime Minister - Photographic Archive of ELIA

In the 1880s, the liberal Greek Prime Minister, Trikoupis embarked on an ambitious program of modernization whose most enduring symbol is the Greek railway network.

One of the most prominent liberal modernizers of Greece, Charilaos Trikoupis (1832-1896) launched a vigorous program of reforms with the aim to develop Greece’s economy – a modernization effort to improve infrastructure and communications.
Trikoupis' Modernization: Loans and Taxes

Prime Minister six times between 1882-1895, Trikoupis believed that Greece should be economically and politically consolidated and modernized before embarking on any territorial expansion campaigns. The means that Trikoupis employed to finance his modernization effort were:

Loans

Trikoupis managed to attract foreign investors and between 1879 and 1890 6 external loans were contracted of a total nominal value of 630 million francs (an unheard of amount for Greece). By 1892, 55% of the annual budget was devoted to debt service. Trikoupis saw loans and budget deficit as a means to revive and restructure the economy but was accused by his opponents as a “megalomaniac”.
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Taxes

During his time in office, Trikoupis raised indirect taxes (on tobacco, alcohol, cigarette paper) and custom duties and took advantage of state monopolies (petrol, matches, playing cards) to increase state revenue and finance his modernization effort. It has been calculated that taxes amounted to 31% of the national product in the 1880s. His tax policies were extremely unpopular but Trikoupis believed it was the only way for Greece to achieve economic growth.
The Greek Railways

Charilaos Trikoupis was a firm believer in the development of infrastructure as a means to improve communications, unify the domestic agricultural market and boost the Greek economy. In 1882 there were only 10 km of railway linking Athens to the port of Piraeus. The railway was also believed to be instrumental in linking the recently annexed (1881) fertile region of Thessaly to the rest of Greece.

The building of the Greek railways was the first substantial state investment of the 19th century. During Trikoupis’ first term in office construction started in Attica, Thessaly and the Peloponnese. The port of Piraeus was connected via railway to Corinth (1882-5) and by 1887 to Patras and Nafplion. The Thessalian railway network was built between 1882 and 1903. There were more lines in the Peloponnese and in Athens and Attica.


Between 1882-1892, some 906 km of railway lines had been constructed while in 1893 the Corinth Canal was completed. The railway network that Trikoupis had established in the 19th century remained almost intact until recently.

Greek Railways and Trikoupis’ Modernization

Sadly, the construction of the Greek railways in the 19th century did not boost economic development. The modernization drive of Trikoupis could not make substantial inroads in the traditional economic and social structures of Greece, the limited domestic market and the low capital accumulation.
[B]
On 10 December 1893, Trikoupis stood before parliament to admit that “Regretfully, we are bankrupt”[/B][COLOR=#ED1C24][/COLOR].

Sources:

Lefteris Papayiannakis, The Greek Railways (1882-1910) [Oi Ellenikoi Sidirodromoi], Athens 1982

History of the Greek Nation [Istoria tou Ellenikou Ethnous], vol. 14, Athens 1977, pp. 39-87.

Richard Clogg, A Short History of Modern Greece, Cambridge University Press 1979

Read more at Suite101: Trikoupis and the Modernization of Greece: The Greek Railways in the 19th Century | Suite101.com http://lito-apostolakou.suite101.com/trikoupis-and-the-modernization-of-greece-a111535#ixzz1cgWBSPWs

Greece: Perspective on a Financial Crisis

Jul 26, 2011
Marie-Claude Arnott


Reforms and riots, tax dodgers and bailout, strikes and tourism are reminiscent of the struggles and austerity of the past.

[B]As the politically and socially embattled state of Greece is faced with financial chaos and austerity measures, it seems that it was only a matter of time until the past caught up with the present. Perhaps the precursory signs should have been the frustration of a people and, eventually its resignation towards the complacent corruption of the elite.[/B][COLOR=#ED1C24][/COLOR]

Perspective on Greece Modern History

Greece was repressed for some 500 years under the Ottoman Empire, whose collapse was preceded and followed by the craving of tribal groups to secure their own cultural territory. But, Ottoman forces were merciless in resisting their demise. Ethnic cleansing, in particular, and other mayhems of rampant anarchy, in general, subjected Greek people to a life of despair. This harsh reality is vividly depicted in the context of a historical novel by Jason C. Mavrovitis, Remember Us, published in 2007.

After the first declaration of independence by freedom fighters in 1822, Greece became an independent kingdom in 1830. But, freedom did not bring stability. Greece had to start over many times, each one with additional challenges such as newly acquired territories, and eventually the repatriation of one million landless peasants, ethnic Greeks who did not speak Greek, and who replaced the Turks and Bulgarians removed from the North of Greece. Integration was barely in the process when a series of trials left the country in shambles: